Flow-characteristics of glacier-fed streams - Tyler, R.G. (2nd Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1934)
Quantitative data of run-off for Washington streams are tabulated to determine their capacity and usefulness. The coefficient of variation is calculated for each stream to determine the variability of the dependability. Streams fed by glaciers and snow accumulation at the higher elevations are compared with other streams having the same total precipitation in the form of rain. Glacier and snow-fed streams have a more uniform flow through the year and a smaller coefficient of variation. A higher annual run-off per square mile resulting from the greater precipitation at the higher elevations, excessive flood-flows arising from a combination of rainfall and snow-melt, and diurnal flow variations produced by temperature fluctuations at higher elevations.A discussion of the paper by F.C. Scobey is shown on page 624 (of the same proceedings publication).
Keywords: Glacier runoff, Snowmelt runoff

Financing snow survey programs - Boardman, H.P. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A round-table discussion relative to financing snow surveys was lead by the author who outlined the problems presenting themselves through limited funds from the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station. George D. Clyde explained similar limited funds from the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station and the Parnell Fund and Agricultural County Extension Service and Water Commissioners of several Irrigation Districts were being used. However, limited finances were hampering the expansion of the program, and other limitations were for qualified manpower. Nevada State Engineer, George W. Malone expressed the great importance of snow survey data to farmers on irrigation districts, and stated his difficulty in convincing the State Legislators of the financial obligation of the State in this program. The entire group commentated on the whole hearted cooperation and support of the U.S. Forest Service, The Park Service and U.S. Weather Bureau in furnishing data.
Keywords: Financing snow surveys

Lake Tahoe water levels - Boardman, H.P.; Church, J.E. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A review of Lake Tahoe water levels from 1878 to date is presented with text discussion towards attempting to find some cyclic effect or means of answering the question: 'How often will Lake Tahoe levels fall below the outlet in the next 50 years?' The use of snow survey data and precipitation data are combined in a 'Percentage System' to compute a forecasting formula. Remarkable results were achieved and forecast accuracy is indicated in the text discussion. In discussion by Major E.H. Bowie, the snow-water ratio of newly fallen snow in the Sierra is explained. Mr. A.V. Tallman discussed the effect of precipitation during the run-off season on the Humboldt River as an aid to forecasting. Dr. J.E. Church described a new Snow Survey network of courses and a system for the Colorado River to aid in planning the operation of Boulder Reservoir created by Hoover Dam.
Keywords: Forecasting lake levels, Snow survey networks

Normals on the eastern slope of the Central Sierra Nevada - Boardman, H.P. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
The process of computing snow survey course normals is described as a percentage of Weather Bureau records. The process of developing more stable normals is related to procedures of improving the percentage system of forecasting water supply from snowmelt. Normals divided into elevation zones were found to be more satisfactory, although some discrepancies due to soil absorption, spring and fall precipitation together with temperature during the accumulation season had to be accounted for effecting errors in forecasting. Professor George D. Clyde discussed the procedures used in Utah, and Spencer Munson discussed the normals used in a California system of forecasting. Dr. J.E. Church discussed snowmelt characteristics pointing out that maximum densities of the snowpack occur just prior to beginning of melt at 49.4% and then reduce to about 37% during the remainder of the melt season.
Keywords: Snow course normals, Snowmelt characteristics

Cooperative (snow surveys) - Bowie, E.H. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
The cooperative procedures which were carried out by the State of California, with Federal, State, City and Private agencies and companies to create the California Cooperative Snow Surveys is outlined. It is stated that the U.S. Weather Bureau had been the first suggested to conduct the work, but it was decided that the project was more in the nature of one to be carried on by engineers; that the Bureau felt they would be more effective as a cooperator than an operator of such an undertaking. Mr. Alexander McQueen, supervisor of the USFS at Elko, Nevada, commented on the effectiveness of the Snow Surveys in the Humboldt Basin, and that his Rangers were enthusiastic about the work. Mr. C.L. Forsling, Director of the Intermountain Forest & Range Exp. Station at Ogden, Utah, commented relative to their cooperation in the snow survey program in Utah. Several members of the Nevada State legislature commented on the hopeful cooperation of that body towards financial help through State funds to the University and the Experiment Station for agriculture at Reno, Nevada.
Keywords: Snow surveys-cooperative program

The biography of snow surveying - Church, J.E. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A biography of previous attempts at snow surveying for the purpose of forecasting the snow-melt runoff in Europe, Eastern United States and the Western States is related. The need for knowledge of the yearly varying quantity of water in the snow-pack which furnishes varying volumes of stream flow to lakes and reservoirs for irrigation and power development is paramount to semi-arid agriculture in the Western States, is presented. The staunch support of the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station in starting the initial phase of this work by the Meteorologic Observatory on Mt. Rose, Nevada, at 10,800 feet elev., and including snow survey measurements of water content to correlate with streamflow and lake rise at Tahoe is described. The rapid growth and acceptance of forecast methods and the survey equipment developed at Mt. Rose from 1909 through 1933 is described. The formation of Water Forecast Committees in various river basins to coordinate snow survey forecasting and release of measurement data and advise local press releases of forecast volumes is described.
Keywords: Snow survey equipment, History of water forecasting

The biography of snow surveying - Church, J.E. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A biography of previous attempts at snow surveying for the purpose of forecasting the snow-melt runoff in Europe, Eastern United States and the Western States is related. The need for knowledge of the yearly varying quantity of water in the snow-pack which furnishes varying volumes of stream flow to lakes and reservoirs for irrigation and power development is paramount to semi-arid agriculture in the Western States, is presented. The staunch support of the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station in starting the initial phase of this work by the Meteorologic Observatory on Mt. Rose, Nevada, at 10,800 feet elev., and including snow survey measurements of water content to correlate with streamflow and lake rise at Tahoe is described. The rapid growth and acceptance of forecast methods and the survey equipment developed at Mt. Rose from 1909 through 1933 is described. The formation of Water Forecast Committees in various river basins to coordinate snow survey forecasting and release of measurement data and advise local press releases of forecast volumes is described.
Keywords: Snow survey equipment, History of water forecasting

Introductory remarks - problems for discussion - Clyde, G.D. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
Snow survey and water supply forecasting projects in Utah with the cooperation of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station at Logan, Utah, is described. The difficulties of finding reliable relations of rainfall and snow data to runoff data are discussed. The probable use of water supply forecasts by many operation agencies such as: Forestry; irrigation; power generation; navigation; and flood control are explained. The need for refinement of field equipment and procedures to assure accurate data and consistent results presents many problems. Cooperation between federal, state, municipal agencies and private companies should be encouraged and organized.
Keywords: Snow surveying organization

Discussion of formal program - Jones, J.E. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
Six problems dealing with streamflow forecasting from snow surveys and other factors involved in producing streamflow from snowmelt, are listed and discussed: 1) Can a series of streams be estimated according to a standard or must each be a problem by itself? 2) Would a master station be more desirable for giving scientific data to all agencies concerned? 3) What is the best method of determining the long time effects of dry year on runoff, soil capacity, etc.? 4) Has any method been devised for determining soil capacity for use in snow survey forecasting? 5) What is the effect of wind, temperature, rain, topography, porosity, and soil temperature on snowmelt runoff? 6) How much variation in time is permissible in consecutive years in making snow surveys to still get comparable results? These 6 points were suggested for future papers and discussion at forthcoming meetings.
Keywords: Snow survey problems

Field equipment roundtable - Jones, J.E.; Lewis, G.A.; Munson, S.M.; Clyde, G.D.; Herz, W.J.; Herz, F. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A round-table discussion is presented relative to the various pieces of equipment used in field snow surveying.George A. Lewis discussed the Mt. Rose Spring Balance, pointing out that excess friction and the lack of initial tension being insufficient for accurate results. He points out the convenience of having 6 ft. lengths of tubing cut into 3 ft. lengths and another coupling added. This facilitates carrying the tubes rather than the 5 ft. sections used in California. The cutters would have to have a harder temper as the ones now in use were bent too easily.Spencer Munson of California discussed the cutters used by that state as being hard enough. Also types of winter clothing was discussed including ski boots and equipment, and care of equipment during the off season.Discussion was had relative to shellac versus wax for snow tubes, to keep the snow from sticking to the bare metal. George Clyde described the Utah aluminum tubes and scales. Fred and Walter Herz discussed ski travel procedures.
Keywords: Equipment, snow survey

Relation of forests to snow - Kittredge, J. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
The effects of forest cover on the accumulation and melting of snow are discussed in relation to water conservation on the basis of surveys made in the U.S. at various periods dating back to 1911. Studies in various regions on snowfall interception by trees of varying crown density, the reduction of wind speed and snow accumulation in openings, and the reduction of solar radiation intensity and accompanying retardation of melt are summarized, and representative data are tabulated. Snow accumulation was found greatest in small openings without crown cover in forests (15.6% more than in the open) and least under a dense cover of trees (32.5% less than in the open). Melting was most rapid in burned areas, and slowest under virgin all-age red fir stand. There was a linear decrease of melting on clear days with increased crown density, amounting to 3 in./day with no crown cover and 2 in./day under 70% crown cover. Differences in kind, size, and density of forest or other vegetation are also reflected in the accumulation and melting of snow. The optimum forest with respect to water conservation appears to be one which is fairly open with interspersed glades.
Keywords: Snow cover distribution, Snow cover melting, Snow cover percolation

Considerations in measurement of yield of snow packs in percolation water - Lowdermilk, W.C. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
Conclusions of a three year study of percolation of water through different soil depths towards the production of tree growth in the forests is presented. It is found that a large portion of the rainfall is evaporated from the bare soil, while there is greater possibility of increasing the deep percolation of melting snow water due to decrease[d] evaporation and slow melting. There is greater percolation of rain water when storms are frequent, say at weekly intervals, than large storms that cause considerable surface runoff. Field instrumentation: rectangular tanks with sloping bottoms, 4 to 36 deep and filled with soil so arranged so that the percolated water could be measured, in conjunction with standard rain gages etc. Provisions were made to measure the surficial runoff and evaporation losses. A table of resulting data is shown. Reference is made to similar studies by O.J. Aderkas and Fueltes Heft. Questions are listed relative to possible instruments for determining the evaporation losses from snow surfaces.
Keywords: Evaporation from snow, Snow cover percolation

Snow survey equipment - Munson, S.M. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
The Utah Snow Sampler, which is an adaptation of the Mt. Rose Sampler, and its scale and accessories are described. In the new sampler the throat of the cutter has a diameter of 1.4872 inches instead of the 1.5 inches, so that 1 inch of water is made to weigh 1 oz., permitting easy conversion to inches of water when ordinary commercial scare readings are used and also facilitating the calibration of special scales. The Utah Sampler uses A1-alloy tubing which is rust resistant, has an extremely smooth bore, and equals structural steel in strength with only 1/3 of its weight. The snow scale developed for the sampler is tubular and much lighter and more compact than the Mt. Rose Scale, but lacks a means for setting the index at zero. Scales of different capacity are required for snow covers of varying depths and high water content, scales of larger capacity being constructed with the spring under an initial tension. George D. Clyde described the Utah Snow Scales, Aluminum tubes. The scales, cradle, sampler and cutter are pictured.
Keywords: Equipment-snow scales, Snow survey scales, Test comparisons

The long-term trend of rainfall in the central Sierra region - Sager, G.V. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
Results of a study to ascertain if past rainfall records would indicate a probable trend or cyclic formation through a 60 year period (1897-1930) to indicate a probable termination of the long dry period, toward forecasting some relief even for a few years in advance. Data from precipitation stations at different altitudes extending from the Pacific Coast across the Sierra and Nevada to Salt Lake City were analyzed graphically by plotting departures from their normals against years. Graphs are shown. Lake levels at Tahoe, Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes are also shown.Conclusions indicate there was little hope of finding a basis for seasonal or other long term forecasting from the data studied, including solar activity.In discussion Mr. F.B. Headley presented a separate graphical procedure for studying in connection with streamflow probabilities for irrigation districts in Nevada. Here the comparisons are reduced to zones rather than the individual stations.
Keywords: Cycles, Precipitation analysis

Progress and conduct of California cooperative snow surveys - Stafford, H.M. (1st Annual Western Interstate Snow Survey Conference, 1933)
A brief history of snow surveying in California and the legislative action creating the California Cooperative Snow Survey Program is presented. Details of financing the initial program is discussed along with cooperation arrangements of Federal, State, private irrigation and power companies, municipal water departments are discussed. Field procedures and equipment used together with instruction methods and procedures of stocking shelter cabins are discusses. A list of cooperators who are servicing some 134 snow survey courses is shown. Water Supply Forecasting procedures are described using tentative normals of snow data for the percentage or index methods are discussed. A tabulation of forecast accuracy is shown. Procedures for publication and disseminating current data are explained. A discussion of problem areas and river basins is included.
Keywords: Financing snow surveys, History-snow surveys, Water supply forecasting